Multiscale ecological interactions governing ecosystem services in natural and managed landscapes under climate stress
Abstract
Ecosystem services-ranging from food production and climate regulation to water purification and cultural well-being-are sustained by complex ecological interactions operating across multiple biological, spatial, and temporal scales. Climate change intensifies pressures on these interactions through rising temperatures, altered precipitation regimes, extreme climatic events, and accelerating land-use change. Both natural and managed landscapes respond to climate stress through interconnected processes involving plants, soil organisms, animals, hydrological systems, and human decision-making. This article synthesizes current understanding of how multiscale ecological interactions govern ecosystem services under climate stress. It highlights the roles of belowground microbial networks, plant functional traits, landscape connectivity, biodiversity dynamics, and socio-ecological feedbacks. By integrating evidence from terrestrial, agricultural, forest, dryland, and coastal ecosystems, the article underscores the need for holistic, multiscale management strategies to sustain ecosystem services and enhance resilience in a rapidly changing climate.