A community ecological analysis of food availability and accessibility in a rural community in the Philippines

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Introduction

Maintaining good status in food security is one of the most valuable objectives that all countries strive to achieve. As defined by the FAO at the World Food Summit in 1996, food security is attained when all people have physical and financial access to enough safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2008).

The concept of food security encompasses several pillars (Wagle, K., 2018). One such pillar is food availability, which refers to an area's access to appropriate quantities of suitable food. Food is considered accessible when it is both physically and economically available, utilization pertains to the sufficiency of dietary intake as well as the capacity of the body to effectively process and utilize nutrients, and stability is achieved when there is consistent supply and access to food.

According to Food Forward (Food Forward, 2019), individuals or households are considered food secure when they have reliable access to a sufficient quantity of nutrient-dense, cul-turally-appropriate food. This means that families do not need to worry about the affordability of groceries, the source of their next meal, or reducing their food intake to cover other expenses.

In 2015, the United Nations established the global goals, known as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with the aim that by 2030, all people would live in prosperity and peace, achieved through the eradication of poverty and the preservation of the environment. These goals consist of 17 sustainable objectives, with "Zero Hunger" being the second goal. Its objectives are to eliminate poverty, promote sustainable agriculture, improve nutrition, and ensure food security in all nations, especially those who are most vulnerable (United Nations Development Programme, 2022).

Since then, numerous programs and activities have been implemented by various groups to combat hunger and ensure food security. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is recognized as one of the most prominent organizations dedicated to addressing global food insecurity. It does not only provide funding but also coordinates food security-related programs worldwide. Over the years, the efforts of FAO and several other organizations have led to a significant reduction in the number of undernourished and food-insecure individuals since 1990. It is estimated that there were one billion food-insecure people before, and now that number has decreased to one million (Dumitrescu, S., 2018).

As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to devastate the world, it has resulted in a sig-nificant increase in food insecurity across almost all countries (U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, 2022). Many individuals have lost their jobs and sources of income, while commodity prices have surged, partially due to the conflict between Russia and Ukraine during the peak of the pandemic. The United Nations Sustainable Development Group (2022) has highlighted that even before the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of people worldwide were already suffering from malnutrition and hunger due to food insecurity. Unfortunately, the number of affected individuals has further escalated by several million as a direct consequence of the pandemic.

The year 2022 was marked as a significant year, witnessing an alarming increase of approximately 800 million in the number of food-insecure individuals worldwide. Food insecurity has become a pressing issue in the Philippines, particularly in the country's poorest regions. The BARMM, Region VIII, and XII are identified as some of the most impoverished areas in the Philippines, where households heavily rely on agriculture and resort to borrowing money to address food insecurity (World Food Programme, 2022).

Moreover, low-income households continue to face significant challenges in food security during the pandemic, with the inability to afford food emerging as a primary concern. A study conducted by Angeles-Agdeppa, et al., (2022) revealed that many families in rural communities have lost their livelihoods and have been severely impacted by the pandemic. As a result, they rely heavily on relief goods provided by local government units, with rice being the preferred staple. According to the residents, rice can be paired with various available items such as oil or salt to create a meal (Ramos, M.S., 2020).

Therefore, this study aimed to assess the food availability and accessibility among low-income households in the rural community of Barangay Fronda, Talugtug, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. Specifically, the study sought to determine whether these households are able to maintain an access to food despite their low income.

Methods

Research locale

This study was conducted in Barangay Fronda (formerly known as Pangit), a Barangay in Talugtug, Nueva Ecija province. According to the first quarter of the 2022 Barangay Fronda census, the Barangay consists of 264 households with a population of 1,146. Within this population, 132 households are classified as low-income earners. Barangay Fronda is one of the barangays in Talugtug where households earn a modest income. Most residents rely on temporary work and small businesses such as sari-sari stores, particularly when they are not engaged in farming.

Research design

In this study, the researcher employed a descriptive method to collect and analyze quantitative data through a survey questionnaire. Bouchrika (2022), describes the sit-uation, phenomenon, and case of a population, and provides answers to questions of how, what, when, and where. The researcher utilized this design to ascertain the food security status of the respondents, as well as to identify the obstacles and issues they encounter in sustaining their food security.

Theoretical framework

This study is anchored in the Food and Nutrition Security (FNS) theory proposed by Simelane and Worth (2020). The FNS theory elucidates the interconnections among the key components of the food and nutrition security framework, namely availability, accessibility, utilization, and sustainability. The theory emphasizes the importance of understanding and addressing these interconnected factors to achieve comprehensive food and nutrition security. By considering the availability of food, its accessibility to individuals and communities, the utilization of food in a nutritious manner, and the sustainability of food systems, the FNS theory provides a holistic framework for analyzing and addressing food and nutrition security challenges.

The relevance of the present study lies in the observation that while food resources may be physically available and accessible in certain households, they may still not be considered food secure. This is primarily attributed to the households' inability to access an adequate supply of nutritious food due to financial constraints. Conse-quently, this situation adversely affects food consumption patterns, with households resorting to low-quality, unhealthy food options and even reducing the size of their meals. As emphasized by Simelane and Worth (2020), the stability of the three pillars-availability, accessibility, and utilization-must be collectively achieved without compromising any of these pillars. Only by attaining this comprehensive food security can nutrition security be effectively realized.

Data collection procedures

The researcher had to have their consent letter signed by the Barangay Captain and a request letter signed by the respondents for permission to conduct the study in Ba-rangay Fronda, Talugtug, Nueva Ecija. Before starting the data collection, the researcher ensured that the respondents fit the criteria. Therefore, respondents were limited only to households with low monthly incomes.

After the respondents agreed and signed the request letter, the household survey began. The researcher guided all households in answering and explaining the questions they could not understand so that the answers were based only on their experience. Conducting this survey depended on the availability of both the researcher and the respondent. In this study, a total of 132 households (data obtained from the First Quarter of the 2022 Barangay Fronda Census) were surveyed and selected using total enumeration sampling.

Data analysis

In this study, the researcher employed descriptive statistics to analyze the data, presenting the findings through tables, charts, and images. The researcher interpreted the quantitative data using the following statistical methods:

Frequency distribution: This method was utilized to define the socio-demographic and economic profile of the respondents, as well as the other that matters regarding accessibility of their food.

Thematic analysis: This approach was employed in presenting some pillars of food security namely accessibility and availability of food.

Ethical considerations

Ethical considerations for this study included: First, the researcher made sure this study's participants weren't vulnerable. They weren't poor despite being low-income.

Second, the researcher requested consent from participants even if they met the study's criteria. The researcher explained the study's purpose, benefits, and risks (if any). The consent stated that respondents could withdraw their information, especially if the household member was uncomfortable with it.

Third, respondent data was written down. They chose whether to sign the survey questionnaire. The researcher might not have identified them without their names. If provided, the information was confidential and only they knew what to enter. After the study, printed survey questionnaires were disposed of.

Fourth, she must protect respondents as a researcher. In this study, the researcher made sure the survey questionnaire didn't affect household mental health. They made sure the questions were not sensitive and respondents were comfortable answering them. The researcher also prevented physical harm.

Finally, the researcher presented all data honestly and accurately.

Results

Sociodemographic and economic characteristics of low-income households

This table presents the frequency distribution of households with and without children based on their socio-demographic characteristics. The table reveals that among low-income households in Barangay Fronda, the majority of households without children have only two members in their family. If they are not married, they often consist of one child and one parent. On the other hand, most households with children have four members, with nearly two children residing in their homes. According to the Asian Development Bank (2009), poor or low-income families typically comprise large families with six or more members. Therefore, it is evident from the presented data that among low-income households in Barangay Fronda, particularly those with children, many have six or more members residing in their homes (Table 1).

Table 1. Sociodemographic and Economic Characteristics of households with and without children.

As shown in the table, the primary source of income for most of them is farming, except for two households with children who stated that their primary source of in-come is from manufacturing and furniture making. There is also one household, each with and without children, who reported having no source of income because they are not engaged in farming. For those engaged in farming, it was presented in the table that they primarily cultivate rice but there are some who created backyard gardens containing vegetables planted by some households. However, for those who are engaged in farming, only a few own lands. Most households with children are caretakers of other people's farms, most of which have an area of 1 hectare or less. On the other hand, most households without children do not have farmland and most of the farmers who are caretakers cultivates 2 to 3 hectares of farm.

Among those low-income households in Barangay Fronda, many have other income sources. Some earn between 15,000 to 20,000, but upon closer analysis, the monthly income of most households with and without children is around 5,000 to 10,000.

Availability of foods

In low-income households with and without children living in Barangay Fronda, food availability can be seen through several means. Firstly, they have harvests from cultivating rice.

As shown in the chart below, the number of households without children can be seen in the percentage of their harvest allocated for consumption and sale. It can be observed that among those households with a harvest, two households allocate 60 percent of their harvest for sale, while the remaining 40 percent is for their con-sumption. On the other hand, 24 households allocate 80 percent of their harvest for sale, while 20 percent is allocated for their consumption (Fig. 1.).

Fig. 1. Frequency of households with children who allocates their harvest for food and for sale.

Among households with children, as shown in Fig. 2, it can be seen that only one household allocates 40 percent of their harvest for sale, while the remaining 60 percent is for consumption. Forty-three households allocate 60 percent of their harvest for sale, and the remaining 40 percent is for consumption. Meanwhile, 25 households allocate 80 percent of their harvest for sale, and the remaining 20 percent is for consumption.

Fig. 2. Frequency of households with children who allocates their harvest for food and for sale.

Based on the two presented charts, it can be observed that they sell almost all of their harvest, leaving only a small portion for their rice stock until the next harvest season. This situation is happening due to several factor.

Rice serves as a staple food for a significant portion of the population, with over 2.7 billion people, primarily from impoverished backgrounds, relying on it as their main source of sustenance (International Rice Research Institute). In the Philippines, rice holds particular significance as the country's primary agricultural crop, and it currently ranks eighth globally in terms of rice production, trailing behind China, Indonesia, India, and other Southeast Asian nations (2022).

Based on their sociodemographic profile, it is evident that almost all low-income households in Barangay Fronda, a rural community in Nueva Ecija, rely on rice farming as their primary source of income. This claim is further supported by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development's statement that rice farming is a significant source of income for over two million Filipino households, millions of farm workers, and tens of thousands of merchants.

Despite this, some households can still stock adequate rice to last until the next harvest. Considering their family sizes, most of them are small, which makes the percentage of their harvest allocated for their consumption sufficient. Additionally, through their earnings from selling rice, they can purchase food items they cannot produce themselves.

However, as Nueva Ecija is known as the "Rice Granary of the Philippines" due to its status as one of the primary rice producers in the country it has helped ensure the availability of rice for the people, especially those living in rural communities. While other residents of Nueva Ecija still buy rice from markets, the residents of Barangay Fronda can produce their food through rice cultivation, which serves as their source of sustenance. Therefore, during the pandemic, individuals with farmland can store their rice. However, other households can still stock their rice by receiving a percentage as caretakers of other people's farmland (Singh, et al., 2021).

Secondly, their food supply is available due to the presence of livestock. The tables below provide information on the types of animals in households with and without children. These tables indicate the number of each animal, the percentage allocated for food consumption, sale, breeding, and the animals solely used for farm work.

The Table 2 shows that most households have chickens as livestock. It can also be observed that most of these households have a count of 0 to 5 animals, and only a few have 5 to 10 numbers of animals. As seen on the table, a higher percentage of their livestock is intended for food. Meanwhile, the remaining percentage of their livestock is allocated for breeding in order to increase their number of their animals. Among those households, those with carabaos (buffalos) mentioned using them solely for farm work.

Table 2. Livestock of low-income households.

Based on the presentation of the table regarding livestock, it can be observed that most of them raised chickens. Chickens are considered the world's most popular type of livestock because they are easy to care for compared to other types of animals presented in the tables above. Furthermore, chickens are resilient against diseases, can quickly adapt to their environment, and can find their own food. People can grow food in their backyard by raising chickens (Jenna, 2019). In raising chickens and other types of livestock, not only meat but also eggs and milk can be made available as food. With livestock rearing, they may not need a large plot of land for housing their animals because, based on the available livestock in each household in Barangay Fronda, they are not difficult to care for.

Thirdly, they have available vegetables due to some households having backyard gardens. The following images serve as evidence of their availability.

Backyard farming/gardens involves utilizing any available space to cultivate and produce food. Individuals can grow various vegetables for personal use, even in small yards. Backyard farming has been practiced in both urban and rural communities for a long time, but the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the number of households engaging in this type of farming (Cerda, C., et al., 2022). The cultivation of vegetables in the backyard of each household is a significant help for them in maintaining a pillar of food security, which is availability. As demonstrated in this study, even individuals with limited financial resources can still have access to nutritious food through fresh vegetables provided by backyard farming. In certain areas, such as Candon City in Ilocos Sur, Local Government Units have implemented projects like "Gulayan sa Barangay," providing residents with free vegetables during the pandemic (Quimoyog, 2020). This has become a means for many people to access food alternatives, especially during economic challenges like the recent pandemic and rising prices of goods, by having available vegetables from their yards without needing to purchase them.

In addition to backyard farming, various types of food, notably different kinds of vegetables and fish, also become available through vendors who roam around the Barangay selling their goods.

Due to the limitations of backyard farming in terms of production capacity, some vendors go around the barangay using their vehicles or mobile carts to sell various types of vegetables or food sourced from the market, providing them to the commu-nities. Through this, they contribute to food availability for the locals, primarily since certain vegetables rely on the area's climate for their growth.

Lastly, various types of food are available due to sari-sari stores in every corner of the barangay.

A sari-sari store is a type of small neighborhood store that provides the daily neces-sities of Filipinos. The store sells staples such as canned food, instant noodles, coffee, soda, and other items Filipinos use daily. In Barangay Fronda, some low-income households also own small stores, which often sell a few vegetables sourced from their cultivation or purchased from markets and then sold to their neighbors.

Despite being low-income earners, those households still have access to food because they can obtain their meals from their stores, which also serve as their food storage, especially when they cannot purchase other food items.

Despite the availability of food around the community among low-income households in Barangay Fronda, there are still factors that can affect the availability of their food. The following are possible reasons for this:

Firstly, natural disasters play a significant role. Calamities such as typhoons and floods significantly impact agricultural production. These calamities reduce the supply of agricultural products due to crop damage. Often, storms arrive close to the harvest season of crops, whether vegetables or rice, which leads farmers to rush the harvest even at the expense of lower product quality.

Moreover, calamities contribute to the increase in prices of goods, particularly agri-cultural products. According to a report by Net25 News, vegetable prices rise due to rainfall that severely affects vegetables, especially those from high-altitude and cold areas like Benguet. Farmers increase the prices of vegetables they sell in markets because they suffer losses due to crop damage.

Therefore, even though some households cultivate rice and vegetables in their sur-roundings, not all types of food are readily available. Many lack space in their back-yards to establish vegetable gardens because they often plant ornamental plants in-stead of vegetables. Additionally, many households do not have farmlands. According to Elauria (2020), one of the challenges faced by Filipinos is the lack of capacity to own their farmland, even if they are engaged in farming. This issue persists for many individuals in the country. The results of this study align with this finding, as it is observed that a significant number of low-income households in the barangay are involved in farming activities without owning land. Many of them serve as caretakers of other people's fields, while others participate in farming only during the rice planting and harvesting seasons. According to the study conducted on the "Farm Land Policy and Financing Program for the Young Generation in the Philippines," it was found that approximately 70% of Filipino farmers are landless. This issue still persists in the present time, as supported by the findings of this recent study.

The availability of rice is affected in these households because, unlike those with farmland, they cannot stockpile enough rice for their families. Thus, when the country faces economic challenges, they are unlike households with farmland that can stockpile their rice. Households without farmland are only engaged in farming during the planting and harvest seasons. Consequently, as Ramos mentioned, as the country faced the pandemic and the problems caused by the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, residents preferred receiving rice from the government. This is because it is easier for them to combine it with simple condiments, such as salt and oil, as long as they can alleviate their hunger.

Additionally, despite farming being their source of income, according to the World Food Program, almost 24% of Filipino households engaged in agriculture still expe-rience severe food insecurity. This is because, during the pandemic, the price of rice per kilogram decreased by 7 pesos per kilo due to the impact of the Rice Tar-iffication Law (RTL), which affected thousands of farmers.

Accessibility of foods

Accessibility serves as the second pillar of food security. This pillar encompasses both physical and financial aspect. Based on the gathered data regarding their access to food of low-income households in Barangay Fronda, it can be observed that households have achieved physical accessibility. This is evident from the presence of fields located behind their houses, where they cultivate vegetables in their backyards. Additionally, stores are conveniently located near each household, and some vendors even provide food within the barangay.

According to Kapampangan Media, sari-sari stores play an important role in com-munities in the Philippines. These retail establishments are conveniently located within residential areas, making it easy for residents to access them. Unlike larger supermarkets or markets that require longer travel distances, sari-sari stores allow individuals to purchase everyday essentials without having to go far from their homes. The same goes for food vendors who use mobile carts to sell various types of food found in the market. With their help, it has become more convenient for households to buy their food, reducing the time they spend purchasing food through vendors and sari-sari stores especially during the pandemic.

However, despite the physical accessibility, financial accessibility remains a challenge for some households, which is the main factor affecting their access to food. As presented in the table regarding their sociodemographic profile, most households, with or without children, have a monthly income ranging from 5,000 to 10,000 pesos. Even though some of them have other sources of income, their monthly income still revolves around that range.

Based on the gathered data on their food accessibility using the US FSSM, it can be seen that financial capacity is a significant factor in their food access. As presented in the Table 3 below, almost all households without children worry about running out of food before they have the means to buy again. Meanwhile, one household mentioned not only worrying about running out of food but also frequently experiencing hunger without being able to buy enough food due to their lack of money.

Table 3. Questions regarding the accessibility of food among low-income households without children.

For households with children, as seen in the Table 4 below, all these households some-times or often worry about running out of food before they have the money to buy again. Additionally, some mentioned experiencing instances where they could not eat due to a lack of food. However, this situation is experienced by adults only. Meanwhile, three households mentioned that there are children who cannot eat enough, skip meals, and experience hunger due to their lack of money.

Table 4. Questions regarding the accessibility of food among low-income households with children.

Through this, we can see the significant role of money, especially in accessing suffi-cient and nutritious food. Many Filipino households cannot purchase food due to a lack of money, even if food is available in their surroundings or communities. This problem has been further intensified by the pandemic, which has affected and made life difficult worldwide, along with other factors hindering households with limited income access to food. This issue is particularly prominent in the Philippines, where a significant portion of the population falls into the low-income bracket.

Discussion

Engaged in farming but not all have farm lands

One of the problems faced by Filipinos is the lack of capacity to own their farmland despite being engaged in farming. Until now, this remains a persistent issue for many Filipinos. As seen in the results of this study, among those low-income house-holds living in the barangay, many are engaged in farming without owning land. Many serve as caretakers of other people's fields, while others are only involved in farming during rice planting and harvesting seasons.

According to a conducted study on the "Farm Land Policy and Financing Program for the Young Generation in the Philippines," it was stated that almost 70% of Filipino farmers are landless, which is still evident in the present time, as proven by this recent study. It is one of the problems faced by many residents of Barangay Fronda because, aside from having limited permanent employment opportunities, farming is their primary reliance to generate income, roughly 60% of individuals residing in rural areas depend on agriculture as their primary means of sustenance. Consequently, it is also evident that many farmers experience moderate to severe food insecurity due to the extensive time they dedicate to farming. Furthermore, the government has been unable to solve this issue.

Moreover, most farmers without their land are gradually decreasing their engagement in farming due to the modern method of harvesting. Nowadays, almost all landowners opt to rent combine harvesters to avoid the need to hire numerous workers for crop harvesting. As a result, many farmers are now earning their income solely from working in rice fields. Consequently, numerous impoverished individuals still struggle and face scarcity in meeting their expenses for food and other necessities.

Low-income households in Barangay Fronda remains having food availability and accessibility despite high poverty

4.2.1. Paddy/Rice Farming

The most common crop for most of the world is rice. Paddy or rice farming is a method of planting where farmers choose the type of rice they will plant, prepare the land, transfer and re-plant the seedlings, take care of them with fertilizers and pesticides, used rainwater or irrigation water, and then wait until it can be harvested.

In the global context, as rice is considered a staple food for almost everyone, over 2.7 billion people-the majority of whom are poor-rely on rice as their primary source of food. However, in the Philippines, as rice is the primary agricultural crop in the country, it continues to rank eight globally in terms of rice production, trailing only China, Indonesia, India, and other Southeast Asian countries.

Based on the result of the study, it can be seen that almost all low-income households in Barangay Fronda, a rural community in Nueva Ecija, rely on rice farming as their primary source of income. This claim was further supported by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development's statement that rice farming is a major source of income for more than two million Filipino households, millions of farm workers, and tens of thousands of merchants. However, despite this, many Filipino households still experience food insecurity, especially during the pandemic. Even though Philippines is one of the top producers of rice, almost 24% of Filipino households who are engaged in agriculture still experiencing severe food insecurity because during the pandemic, the price of rice per kilogram has decreased by 7 pesos per kilo brought by the effect of Rice Tariffication Law (RTL) that affects thousands of farmers.

However, as Nueva Ecija is considered as the "Rice Granary of the Philippines" due to its being one of the primary producers of rice in the country, it has helped to maintain the food security status of its residents, even for those who are low-income earners and may be food insecure, as they are not starving. Firstly, this is because they can grow rice to serve as their source of food. During the pandemic, like what Singh et al., (2021) stated on the result of their study, people with farmland can store their rice, while some people who do not have their own rely only on the small amount they earn. So that, as the country experienced the pandemic and some problems brought by the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, Ramos mentioned that residents preferred to receive rice from the government because it is easier for them to provide any dish, such as salt and oil, as long as they can alleviate their hunger (Ramos, 2020).

Secondly, it provides income to some household. As shown in the results of the study, most households use farming as a source of income as they take care of someone else's farmland. Through this, despite of having a small amount of income, they can sell their share to purchase other needs while some of their harvest from rice farming are allocated for their food. So that, as the data gathered revealed, almost all households allocate their harvest more on selling than for their personal consumption.

Backyard/livestock farming

Backyard farming involves using any available space to grow and produce your food. People can plant various vegetables and raise animals for personal use, even in a small space in their yards. Backyard farming has been prevalent in urban and rural communities for a long time, but the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the number of households engaging in this type of farming.

Backyard farming has been a significant help to households, especially in maintaining their food security. As shown in this study, even if people do not have enough money for food, they can still eat well because of the fresh vegetables, fruits, and meat provided by backyard farming. They no longer need to go far or buy vegetables and eggs from the market because they can provide them themselves. The Local Government Units in some areas, such as Candon City, Ilocos Sur, also implemented this method; the leaders created a project called "Gulayan sa Barangay," providing free vegetables to the residents in the area. However, it was revealed on the result of the study that only few households are engaged of backyard farming because there is no available space on their backyard to build a vegetable garden.

However, when it comes to livestock, only a small percentage of households allocate a portion of their resources for their consumption, even though they have a significant number of animals. Most of them raise livestock to increase their numbers or use them for fieldwork. Some households do not have animals, yet they still consume meat such as chicken and pork by buying from vendors around the barangay.

Supported by government programs

In the Philippines, one of the government programs that citizens rely on is the 4Ps (Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program). The 4Ps program aims to reduce poverty by subsidizing households with severely poor children to improve their health, nutrition, and education. This program supports millions of impoverished families in the Philippines.

The result of the study showed that some households solely rely on the 4Ps to pur-chase food and other necessities. However, the study also revealed that seven households were still moderately to severely food insecure. This claim was further confirmed by the Commission on Audit, stating that 90% of Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program recipients still live-in poverty, despite receiving payments for a long time. Meanwhile, in the low-income households who live in Barangay Fronda, it can be observed that there are households who are beneficiaries of 4Ps are still better off in terms of being food secure, and they can still avoid hunger even there are instances that they are not satisfied on the amount given by the government due to the amount of some of their expenses.

Conclusion

Based on the indicated findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:

It can be concluded that the households examined in this study face significant challenges in securing the availability of their food. While they have attempted to address the availability pillar through livestock rearing and cultivation of crops, there are still gaps in accessing a stable and nutritious food supply.

The physical accessibility of food seems to be relatively better, with households having backyard fields for vegetable cultivation and stores conveniently located near their residences. However, financial accessibility remains a significant barrier, particularly for low-income households with large families.

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